Eslam in Middle East and Asia

The middle East :

In only one year Caliph AboBakr followed by Caliph Omar Ebn El Khatab entered most of the Roman cities victoriously .
In 637 A.D. Syria, Iraq and Persia were all parts of the moslem world.

Ghassnassides, (minophisites Arab Christians ) who were persecuted by the Roman church at Constantinople took shelter in Moslem countries and aided the Moslems there.
After the completion of Moslem victories , Christians were merged with them and they had their freedom of worship and equality in states , most of them reached highest ranks .

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The Ommiads :

In 661 A.D. Caliph Moawya moved the capital to Demascus and there started a new era of eslamic art building , that continued to three hundred years. Its main features were buildings characterized by the main mosque facing east beside it residence of the amir or ruler.
The Caliph Abdelmalek Ibn Marawan especially took great care of the holy city (jerusalem) . Caliphs made of the capital the greatest world's civilised center for culture and art.
Dynasty end at 749 A.D.

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Jerusalem :

History of Jerusalem goes back to the stone age about 25000 B.C. , Semities settled in Palestine from Arabia and among fluit weapons have been found near Jerusalem.
Encyclop. brittanica p.7
After Alexander, Ptolemic possesions north of the Sinai desert including Palestinr , then Palestine passed into the hands of the house of Seleucus . It was under Selucid rule that the great uprising of the jewish people , the revolt of the Maccabees occured. Hadrian captured Jerusalem and jewish rebels fled to Bithar , but were defeated and slaughtered. Hadrian turned Jerusalem into a Roman city and changed its name to Aelia Capitolina, built a temple of Jupiter on the site of the jewish temple and forbade any jew on pain of death to appear within sight of the city. Palestine continued direct under Roman rule. Many researchers certify that the Arabs were the dominant inhabitants of Jerusalem from the beggininng of its human habitation. What the Moslem Arabs did (A.D.638 ) was to put an end to the Roman occupation of Palestine and of Jerusalem as the native inhabitants , Christans , and pagans were descended from the original Carmel man of Palestine and of the semitic Arab tribes of Amorites, Canaanites and others who had entered the land from Arabia in immigratory waves. Modern investigations based on archeology shows that the Hebrew were a limitred group , that their rule in Jerusalem as a city state was of short duration , that the city states of Judaea and Samaria were two of many scattered throughout Palestine , and the Hebrew rule ended as many successive foreign invasion ended (Hitties, Hyksos, Hurrians , Greeks nad the Romans). While the period of uncontested Arab habitation in Jerusalem and Palestine covers at least 8000 years.

In 614 chosrous II of persia captured Jerusalem and ruined many buildings including the church of the Seculpture. Chosroe II king of Persia made an inroad into Syria joined by jews anxious to revenge their misfortunes, he swept on the country carrying plunder and distructiuon wherever he went. Church was destroyed and its treasures carried off, the other churches were razed to the ground . Heracloius defeated Chosrous and re-entered Jerusalem 629. Heraclius then collected a huge army and in 634 marched against the Arabs . They met at Yarmuk river . Betrayed as it said by a christian who had suffered personal wrong at the hands of certain of the Byzantine generals, the army of Heraclius (though 200,000 and Moslems were only 36,000), was utterly defeated and with it fell the byzantine empire in Syria and Palestine .
In 637 Omar Ebn ElKhatab ousted the Romans but was careful not to harm the city. He built a wooden mosque which caliph abdelMalek rebuilt in 688 . He also reconstructed the Doom of the Rock.

In 1099 crusaders under Geoffery of Brritton stormed Jerusalem and a horrible encarnage ensued..Saldin occupied it 1187 and repaired the walls.. In 1517 Salim I the Ottoman took Jerusalem from Egypt.

After World War I , Jerusalem became the capital of the British mandated territory of Palestine . In 1948 state of Israeil was announced, and in 1949 Jerusalem was divided by an agreement between Israeil and Jordan into two parts, the Arabs held the old city and the jews held city capital of the country . Encyclopedia Brittanica . Vol. 13 . p.8.

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Mesopotamia (Iraq)

Land between the two rivers Degla and Euphrates.
Ancient Assyrian civilzation : 2000-1000 B.C.
Middle Assurian Civilization
New Age Assurian Civilization 612 - 883 B.C.

The Mediens coquered Assur 614 B.C. , then Phoenicia (Phoeix) and again after two years they conquered the capital and plundered and burned the cities . Trace for Assyrians disappeared.

The babelonian civilization : south Iraq and the Somarian civilization : south Babel ( to which the world owe the writing invention ).

First Babelonian dynasty 1893 -1595 B.C., there were efforts to unite the cities espeially with the arrival of Hamurabi 1750 - 1792 B.C.

After this Kasssite dynasty 1157 - 1570 B.c.
followed by the Khaledines ,
after this Babel was under the Selucides and persians.

In 637 A.D. Iraq entered Eslam and it entered a great period of civilization flourishing again.

In 749 A.D. Caliph El Mansour moved the capital to Baghdad.
Enlightened Abbasid Caliphs 749 -1258 encouraged art, science and scientific researches and welcomed immigrants . A stage of scientific researchiong and laboratory work led to great development in all fields of art and science.

Abbasid art flourished in north Africa.

The eighth (8th) - eleventh (11th) century were the scientific golden age .
All the Eslamic states enjoyed cultural unprecedential flourishing from eastern Asia till the Atlantic Ocean.

By the thirteenth century crusaders allied with the Mongols to attack Moslem lands .
Jenkiz Khan's campaign led to the distruction of Baghdad and its library with its unique documents ; he then attacked Constantinople and imprisoned the Moslem sultan Biazide 1258 A.D. Later Jenkiz khan's sons adopted Eslam , they found their dynasty in Mongolia, then Peking (China), then northern Persia ; They then adopted Eslam and their state extended to Persia, India, Afghanistan , China east to Caspian and the Don rivers , and Finland and Poland to the west.
They also ruled in the city of Muscovoy (Moscow), and had their cultural centers.

The Lutherian Kings of the west allied with Rus at east and attacked Eslamic cities by sea from west and south , and by land east and north; and were able to penetrate Moslem states.

Russians occupied Crimean , Don, Volga, Eslamic cities and mid Asia while western kings penetrated the middle east and southern and southern eastern Asia Many Eslamic cities were occupied , its inhabitants ethnic cleansed , and towns rehabilitated and given new names .

Horrifc genocides took place.


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Abbysinia :

(Ethiopia) : The origin of the African race lies in Sabaa (Sheba) in southern Africa , but their recorded history begins with the establishment of the kingdom of Axum in Tire.
Ethiopia northeastern Africa , bordering Egypt and the red sea . Official name for modern Abbyssinia (Habashat). Abbasseni or Abissa . The bulk of informastion is derived from Egyptians monuments , whence it appears that originally occupied by independent tribes , who were raided and gradually subjected by Egyptian kings (E.A.W Budge , The Egyptian Sudan). Under the 18th dynasty Ethiopia became an Egyptian province administered by a viceroy called prince of Kesh. Ethiopia became independent toward the 11th century B.C., a state was found having for its capital Napata. .

The furtunes of the Ethiopian 25th dynasty belong to the hisory of Egypt. About 660 B.C. Ethiopia continued independence. Soverignity became elective ; a deputation was sent to Nepata where the chief god Amen was succeded and who became officially the god's son. Shortly after Nastesen's accession , he was threatened by the invasion of Cambyzes the Persian conquerer of Egypt, but he destroyed the fleet sent by the invader up the Nile. Capital was removed from Navada to Meroe ; around 23 B.c. the last was invaded by Petronius who took the fortress of Ibrim and sacked the capital, then Napata. The stretch of land between Aswan (Syene) and Maharraka (Hiera Sycaminus ) was regarded as belonging to the Roman empire. Candace ( queen for whom a pyramid was built at Meroe. A great builder was Netekamane who is represented with the queen Amanetari', temples of Egyptian styles at many parts of the Nile. In the Roman period the type of Egyptian sculpture changed from the Egyptian.
In the 4th century the state of Meroe was ravaged by the abbysinians and in the 6th its palce was taken by the christian state of Nubia, (Dongola).

Many of the navigators refered in 1455 to the land of the Negroes on the Senegal as part of southern Ethiopia. The Ethiopians appear to have derived their religion and civilisation from the Egyptians. The royal manuscripts writtewn in Hieroghliphic character and the Egyptian language. Abyssinia dynasty . The earliest part of the Axum chronicle preserved is that recording the wars of Amda Sion (1314-44) .

Arab merchant from Yemen , who took on conversion the name Anba kom (Habakluk), translated a number of books from Arabic. Under Yakub (1605) , the valuable chronicle of John Nikiou was translated from Arabic. p. 780. Homilies also exist in large numbers , both original and translated , after the Arabic fashion in rhymed prose.

Early Moslems immigrated to Abbysinia , where its leader gave protection to them. He adopted Eslam and sent a mission to The Prophet , but the ship containing 60 men and his two sons was drawned in the red sea by the patriarchs.


As usual in present history books we'd notice resmbling phrases :
"From the 7th c. with the expansion of Eslam until the mid of the 15th century , little is that is historicaaly authentic can be recorded of that country ."

About 1490 began a series of European contacts . Portuguese started attacking Moslem villages . In 1520 a Portuguese fleet arrived carrying a mission that remained in Abyssinia for six years , earliest European account of the city was written. After their departure Mohamed Gran regained the city from Zaila. In 1514 , Portuguese Stephen Da Gama arrived at Masawa 1541 from India and landed a force of 450 musketters under Christopher Da gama with a fire small canon and attacked moslem villages . In 1543 Gran was defeated and killed and moslems retreated south. Galla tribes from spouth and east tries to return and spread northward and eastward till Memluks conquered them. .I
n 1557 Portuguese started converting inhabitants but in 1633 the mission were masacred or expelled , to the joy of the monphysite churches who claimed that :'the sheep of Ethiopia is now deliverd from the hyenos of the west '. Gibbon comment : "the gates of the solitary realm were foreever shut against the arts, science and fanaticism of Europe".

In 1268 Abyssinia was united under Yakuno Anluk , the ruler called himself Megusa Nagasat(king of kings or emperor) , claiming his descent from queen of Sheba .
In 1805 the first British diplomatic mission under Vescont Valencia and Henry Salt was sent to conclude an alliance with Abyssinia and obtain a port on the red sea.
Enc. Brittanica vol I p.76.

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Kurds:

Ary group , spread in Iran, Tukey, Sami, Iraq, Russia, Lebanon , Afghanistan, Morrocco and India.
There's ambiguity about their origin; they have no relations to the arabs and never had a united state . Some are Shafiis and others zraditsh and some in Mosel in Iraq worship stars (salia), from their tribes the shabak . The yazidia in Sengar hills adopted Eslam from Persians.

Sufism was created in their homes and many of them are darawish, muridin and kazlabash. They speak arian language.


Their history : a series of rebellioin against Ottoman turks, Iraq and Iran.

Sifr treaty gave them autonomy to use kurdish areas in eastern Iraq, southern Armenia and borders between Turkey and Iraq.
Kurdistan is their origin , some spread in Arpil in Iraq.

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Phoenicia (Phoenix) :

Westen Asia (Lebanon).

Civilization of phoenicia flourished in 2000 b.c.
Phoenicians became master of sea trade and had their cities in most of the mediterannean ports. as Tyre, Sida, Becaa in the east, Karthage (Tunisia) , and they were famous for their purple golden crafts.

They invented alphabets that were borrowed by the Greeks later together with the phoenician coinage system. Bekaa was a trade route between the east and the west that caused its attack by Egyptians , Hittites and babelonians. Phoenicia came under sea attacks that devastated it but cold flourish once again . Its main cities Biblos, Arad, Tyre, Sida were important trade routes till its conquest by Alexander the Maceonian 322 B.C. , followed by the rule of Selucides.

Then the Romans conquered Karthage (Tunisia) and added it to the Roman states 146 B.C.

Moslems then ruled most of Roman states.

During the modern age Lebanon was enlarged.
After the civil war Lebnon was laid to ruins and many of its infrastructure was destroyed , while Tyre's cultural role diminshed greatly because of its closeness to jewish borders.

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Eslam at Persia:

Persia civilization is one of the ancient.
The oldest the Akhamnides 538-331 B.C. till Alexander’s invasion 312 B.C.
Alexander crowned himself as king of persians after the Persian king Darios and married a persian woman Roxana. But Persians later regained those Persian lands that the Macedonians usurped.

The word Persian is derived from Parthian in which is the period of the flourishing of ancient persian civilization from 250 B.C till the third century A.D. , intruded by a short period of Roman invasion.

Parthava is one of the oldest Persian cities that included present lran, lndia, Armenia, and the cresent land ; and ths first Persian city was Nisar followed by the sassanide dynasty from 3rd C. A.D- 7th century A.D. named after king sasan that was found in 227 A.D. by Artabanos.

The battle of kadesia brought on end to the sasans rule.


Eslamic era :

Prophet Mohamed sent to Caiser (Kesra) king of Persia inviting him to Eslam but he tore the message and prepared an army for crushing Moslems ; soon his kingdom was to be torn apart.
His army though greatly exceeding in number that of Moslems could not face the the boldness of the brave beleivers. and though he chained soldiers together so that they won't escape, yet they retreated infront of the bold moslem army moving hastly backwards that they fell in the ditch they had previously prepared for moslems. Thus their army was annihilated and entirely defeated.

With the marriage of Husein Ibn Ali Ibn Abu Taleb with the daughter of the last sasnian king , Persia entered the Islamic era.

During the samanides dynasty 819- 1005 A.D, Persia was enlarged to include the transoxania area , khawarezm and east Turkestan under the karanides rule 991-1211 A.D., while the northern mountain areas were ruled by the Twondi dynasty 665-1349 A.D. and the zirides dynasty 927-1090 A.D.
With the Boyades dynasty , Persia and Iraq were unitied 932-1092 A.D.
The Abbasydes Caliphs ruled only namely from 900-1250 A.D., as the states' governers and jobs were run by persians.

The tolerance of the Moslem Caliphes and their interest in Persian culture led to the flourishing of Persian art, architecture and civilization.
In architecture buildings and garden plannings', the Persian eslamic buildings were marked by the building of rulers' residence beside the main mosque or school centers, attached to it were rulers graves that used to be religious mazarat.

Many immigrated to Persia and adopted Eslam.
Persian rulers utilized Roman immigrants from Anatolia who adopted eslam and were under samanids rulers in samarkand. They were merged with the persian culture (from them were the Seljuk Romans) .
Seljuk Romans then could rule at Baghdad and one of their building features were the inns or small hotels usually with a fountain, at the main roads to recieve and protect travellers.
With the seljuk Romans, Persia entered a new flourishing cultural era and persians presented the highest art , especially of carpet making, to the world.

Other dynasties :

Tahirides dynasty 730-821 A.D.
Safavides dynasty 961-1186 A.D. Despite the Mongol tempest that ended the rule of khawarezm’s shah in the Afghanistan territory 1221 A.D., the mongol (Ghenkiz khan's sons) later adopted Eslam and merged with the persians during their rule to persian pangab, and Afghani states , and again culture and art centers flourished .

In 1509 persia & Iraq were united again under the safavides rule with Tebriz then Asfahan as Capial.
The 16th 18C saw the war between Seljuk Romans (turks) and Persians.
In the new age, the Policy of the shah of Iran led to the westernisation of Persia till the Khomeni's revolution .

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Eslam in India :

Since long, india was a trading route, many arabs and persian travellers settled there especially by the coast of Malabar.

Inhabitants started to learn about Eslam from arabian traders. With the arrival of Moslem arabian merchants from arabian penninsula and the sea travellers, convert to Eslam increased.

There is a famous myth about the convert of Samori (zamori), king of seas to Eslam in kalicut.
Since the 7th and 8th century a number of arabian and persian immigrants to eastern and western Indian coasts increased.

Sind was the first Indian country arabs travelled to and settled in.
Most of Indian inhabitants converted to Eslam and many soltanates had risen, its kings were called kings of Delhi.

Ghazni state was ruled by Seluktigen which was enlarged during his son's reign Mohamed Ghazni to include Pangab- Sind- Khorasan - Persia and behind Galal.

Culture flourished during Ghazni's rule and its capital Ghazni (Afghanistan now) was a big cultural center.

For a while eastern Afghanistan was united with Kashmir.
It was followed by the Ghuri state -mid of Afghanistan which included most of Ghazni's states.
In 1210 A.D. Delhi became ruled by Shams El Din Tatmish and became capital of India, and this soltanate became Indian's greattest power for the next hundred and fifty years.

There was the Bari state then the Khalgy and the second quarter of the 14th c. A.D. Toghluk tried to unite Indian states.

Other sultanate of eastern Ganipur.
Juzarat soltanate 1461-1573 A.D.
Dakani Soltanate 1528-1346 A.D.
Behmani sultanate of northern Deccan.
Zafr Khan Ghazi 1336- 1347 A.D. moved the capital to Bidar 1428 A.D. then Efrangon.
Mongol ruled India 1560-1620 A.D.

17th aqnd 18th c.

Togluk tried to unite India till the arrival of Timur lank 1398 A.D. , but Zaher El Din Mohamed Baber was the first to establish for the Mongol dynasty in India in 1530 A.D.
During reign of Babor (one of Ghenkiz Khan's grandsons) , the Mongolian empire was founded in India 16th c.

followed by Husein's state who was forced to flee to Persia by Shuhan.

Akbar Fahd was the real founder of the Mongol state 1560 A.D. He married to princess Rajput and as tolerant as usaul with Moslems , he allowed her to practise her Hindu religion.

Nezam Haidar Abad 18thc.

Peaceful immigration played a great role in the spread of Eslam till the arrival of western conquerors where hundred of Moslem cities were attacked and fully destroyed.

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Indonesia:

Arabian merchants came with good news about Eslam that Indonesians awaited its arrival. Eslam spread between Indonesians and their indo mali culture merged with them.
Hayan rik ruled with the title Raga Pamagawa in Bali.
Eslam spread throught the northern west of sumatra by the arabian merchants and Indonesians rulers welcomed moslems with their religion of tolerance and equality.

Moslems were masters of merchandry and protectores of the Indonesians.
Art and culture flourished and Malaga flourished as a cultural and trade center.

By the begginnings iof the 16th c. the Maga Spoheit dynasty got weak.
And before in the 15th c. Vasco Da Gama 1497 arrived in the Sandaein islands while Alfonso bikirk occupied Malaga 1519 followed by the Dutch occupation.


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Eslam spread peacefully in other Asian countries as Philipinnes, Thailand and most of eastern Asia.

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Armenia :

Armenia !!!! Over a thousand year Eslamic.
1st century Armenia was part of the kingdom of Urarta it was ruled by Persian Arsacids .
In 4th c. it became Roman and Christianity imposed on it.By 7th c. it entered Eslam.
Its Moslem ruler Ashad Bagratony was granted the title "prince of princes", and the capital of the first Moslem empire was named Bagaran, then Stierra Cavan then Ani which remained its capital until the 11th c.

Armenia was enlarged greatly from 11th to 12th century as result of trade, 150 states were united.
In the second half of the 11th century Armenia became part the Moslem Seljuk Romans Empire.
In the 12th c. rich Armenian Christians of Cilicia, (by this time south of Taurus Hills), southern Turkey - allied with crusaders and allowed their lands as passage for crusaders to the east. But Mamlukes of Egypt regained Armenia from crusaders till 14th c. when Ottomans ruled it. Armenia remained Moslem till 19th c. start of modern western attacks.Propaganda:Early in the 18th century , the Armenian mekhitarist fathers had already established printing presses in Vienna and had revived the Armenian and Greco-Roman classics p.379.

The Russians appeared in Transcauccassia and occupied Georgia 1801.They gradually occupied also the khanates of Sherven and Sheki Yerivan. They assisted the Armenian church to recognize itself. With the close of Russian Turkish war of 1878 came in consequence british invention . Armenian undergroumd parties believed that the more noise they made the more attention they derived. And in 1896 elected Msgr. Ormaniau as patriarch. When the Turks entered World war I , the Armenian leaders assured them of their loyalty.By 1915 Armenian lack of loyalty led the Turkish government to deport them to Syria and Mesopotamia. The Russiian conquered Turkish Armenia in 1916 and proclaimed its liberation from Turks but bared surviving people from returning to their homes because they had planned to colonise the country with cassacks . p.30. and in 1918 Balfour said Britain would do erect. To decide the future of Armenia. P.380.Azerbayan was conquered by the red army, followed by a communist rise in Armenia.Treaty of Sevilles recognized Armenia as a free independent state and fate of Armenia was decided by the armed forced of Russia and Turky.In 1922 Armenia, Georgia and Azerbayan became a part of Soviet federation republic.In 1936 they became a constitutent republic of USSR.Encyclopedia Britannica - vol.2 p.. 380.

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Eslam in China and Siberia

Eslam in China:

Eslam spread in China during the T'ang dynasty (618-906), 7th century. Eslam spread by Arabian merchants who arrived from all over Eslamic world, especially through Manchuria (Khitan), and through the international silk road. Tang extended into Korea and incorporated Mongolia, establishing protoctorate of Annam (Vietnam) . There were also expeditions into Japan (Nara), that was greatly influenced by China.

Chinese introduced the art of papermaking to Samarkand. In 676 Ibn Abbas brought Eslam into Samarkand (Soviet center of Asia), and Samarkand was an active participant in international trade along the the Silk Route and the city was renowned for its papermaking and paper was traded westward from China to central Asia and Persia . paper was exchanged between east Europe and Asia through the silk road. Though Samarkand was destroyed by Jenkiz khan in 1220 , it was handsomely restored between 1334 and 1360. The Eslamic architecture of China and south west Asia still remains little known and poorly documented. It was probably not until the influxes of the 8th centuries that Moslems arrived in China (by both land annd sea), though the foundations of several mosques such as Canton may go back to this early period, most of the eslamic architecture in China is more recent but it is also typically Chinese. (Architecture of the Eslamic world -edited by George Michell - Thames and Hudson) p.279.

During the T'ang dynasty art and poetry reached new heights. Under Husein Tsung 712-756 lived the greatest poets and painters. The Tang allowed all religions and races to flourish in an atmosphere of tolerance and intellectual curiosity - the capital Changan became a great cosmopolitan center as in other cities and ports, and China opened her frontiers so widely to foreign trade and cultures and it extended into western Turkistan. Though remains of the Tang dynasty are few there are Eslamic arts associated with the Tang of china as the potteries. (Islamic art - David Talbot Rice). Fabric: some shapes demonstrate clear affinities with Chinese forms. In 907 the dynasty was brought to an end, with its end China incorporated a policy of isolation . Succeeded by Kitan (907-1125), followed by the five dynasties 907-960 , then the Sung dynasty 960-1279 ; when it was threatened from northeast, the Sung called the Chin (golden tatars) for help.Then came Mongols , Tamuchin or ghenghiz Khan invaded China in the 13th century, and defeated the Chin. Mongols overran China in 1280 and quickly adopted the Chinese culture , and in 1279 Kublai khan became emperor of all China and it was one of the great creative periods of Chinese culture. Their dynasty was called Yuan , he made its capital at Khanbaliq - , site of modern Peking, he ruled not only over China but over most of the Mongol empire with its western frontiers in Mesopotamia and Europe, stretching from the Baltic to the Pacific. Though his rule was disputed by his house in Turkistan , it was acknowledged by those of the Volga whose rule reached Poland and by his brother Holagu whose rule extended from the Oxus to the Arabian desert. There were several expeditions to Japan.The great astronomical instrument of his scientists were preserved in Peking , but were carried to Berlin in 1900. The court of Khublaikhan was visited by the Ventian merchant Marco polo ( the first European to visit china (1275), and written about. Most of the city was destroyed by fire by a buhddist at the fall of the Dynasty (Splendours of the East- Wheeler).

In 1368 a Buddhist monk Chu Chang expelled the Yuan and moved capital to Nanking 1368-1644. As soon as the Abassid power began to wane in the 10th century the local samanids took over parts of central Asia. The following moslem Turcik dynasties- Ghaznavides- Ghurids, Tumurids and Mongols restablished political control over the area, though dominians of the Qarakhanids and Shahanids remained north and west of the Oxus river.Mongol khanate under Oriangtay ruled southern China together with the Tuan dynasty. Tuan ruler Sayed Ogal (origin from Bakhar) , ruled Yunan (1274-1279) , one of his important works were the hydraulic achievemnets, his moslem sons won victory for Yunan (southern China) , and ruled 1382 and their dynasty continued to 1644. The ch'ing dynasty 1644-1911: Under emperial patronage, history and text criticism were udertaken by the school of Han learning, a movement to restore the authenticity of ancient works and to strip away the accretions of later centuries. Then came pressure by Europeans to gain a foothold in China, then Russian advance and capture of Albazen 1839. The west desired admission into China to market their products and obtain raw materials. In 1839 hostilities broke and war dragged until 1842 treaty of Nankin providing the session of Hong Kong to Britain and opening ports. p.525.

Through a series of military defeat China was progressivley forced to cede to foreign powers, Russia, Japan, Germany, Britain and France. p.619.
(The dictionary of art - edited by Jane Turner).

There's an arabian proverb : ask learning even in China, but moslems had reached beyond China.

There is also evidence of Moslems being in Siberia.

Khan is a title of respect in moslem conturies .(Khan was the title used by moslem rulers in the east.)From Encyclopedie Britannica - vol. 20.


Siberia:

Earlier inhabitans came from the mangolian plateau in the 3rd century. In the fifth century Turkish peoples (Kharkass) and Uigurs were compelled to imigrate north eastwards from their homes.
Kharkass empire lasted till the beggining of the 13th century while it was destroyed by the Mongols.

By the end of the 15th century, Tatar fugitives from Turkistan subdued tribes of Mansy and Khanti (east of Urals) and found a siberian khanate with its capital kashluk (or Sibir).

Russian extension from Moscow brought the Russian and the tatars into collision.
In 1555 the Siberian Khan Yadiger had to pay tribute of 1000 sables.

In 1568 Kikov extended Russian colonization and a small army was recruited to conquer new lands for the tsar. Russians laid seige to the residence of khan Kuchum at sibir . p.598. and Yermak entered Sibir in 1582.In 1584 Yermak was drawned in the Irtysh while fighting Kuchum's counter offensive. Russians abandoned Siberia but new bands of hunters and adventurers however thronged across the Urals every year and were supported by Moscow.

At the beginning of the 17h c. Russian expansion reached the Yenisei river .... p.598

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Another clan of the normans (Rus) .

(Rus) :

Origin of the Rus:

From Encyclopedia Brittanica :

Evidence of Arabian, Persian and viking remainance through main trade routes.

Rus: a varangian tribe , in ancient times related to the Swedes, Angles, and Northmen.

The line of duke of Moscow starts from Alexander Nevsky's younger son Daniel. Their genealogy during the domination of the khanate of the Golden Hordes in Russia -1240-1480 as they had to ingratiate themselves with the khans of the golden horde to receive the yarlyk (permission) as dukes .

They regularly journeyed to the Sarai (the capital of the khans at the mouth of the Volga) , and returned as chief collectors of theTatar tribute, which gave them power overotherdukes p.693.

Moscovite dukes soon succeeded in increasing their possession, extending their domains by purchase and by violence over the whole province of Moscow.
Demetrius (Demetry) adding to it the upper Volga region. Metropolitans of the Russian church in the person of Peter, Theognost and Alexius settled in Moscow and added to their title grand dukes of all Russia leading boyaars and men of servicve to come in crowds to serve the grand dukes of Russia.

Demetrius then attacked the Tatar of the Golden Horde led by Mamai in a bloody battle in 1380. Two years later Taktamush sacked and burned Moscow , but was defeated by Timur Lank, his former protector and Mongol rule lasted another hundred years.

In 1471-1485 Ivan's III attacked and acquired Novogrod and Tver, enlarging Russian territories.
Successive wars followed extending the western frontier to the golf of Finland.
Aid of Cremean Khan was available to put an end to the khanate of the golden horde. But later Evan took offensive againstthe khanate of Cremea and refused the tribute and fortified his acquired teritories against the Tatars . He then married Zoe (Sophia) the only niece of the last Byzantine emperor Constantine Paleologus 1472. and then Moscovite church considered himself considered himself successor of the Byzantine emperors and the only representative of the Orthodox church in the world. Vol.19


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Eslam at Iceland

Eslam at Iceland :Moslems travelled through the oceans and reached its remote isles. In some descriptions one is typical to Iceland and Tirniq (new land), with the evidence of eslamic coins found in Budal , high at Mizar (at Iceland) and in Deitland near ro the north pole.From book of Civ. of the West. p.56.

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Eslam in south Africa

Eslam at South Africa:In A.D.659 the Arab AbdulMalik landed in east Africa; several routes from the Mediterrannean appear to have been followed across the desert from very remote times The first undesputable trans-saharan connection grew out of the Arab immigration into north Africa.

The 7th c. arab venture to the east coast and central Africa was followed by others. A belt of settlements and culture reached from the Lamu to the Zambizi river. It appears to have been the product of the immigration direct from Arabia with some increments from Iran and India.Moslems spread across central and western sahara.
City dwellers there were converted and generally treated well by the Moslems.
Encyclopedia Britannica p.330.

Moslems began pushing southwards across the sahara following naturally marked lines of the infiltration that had been increasingly used ever since the introduction of the camel in the last year of the Roman empire .

A fresh wave of the Arab immigration emerged anew beyond the sahara. and Eslam promptly took hold.The first knowledge of central Africa was contributed by Arabs.

Zanzibar was founded by Said of Muscat and rapidly attained importance.
Zanzibar= the first reference to zanzibar occurs only after the rise of Eslam.
Arabs began to immigrate to the great cities of east Africa ; in the time of Ptolemy an arab from zanzibar crossed the continent from Benguela( Encyclopedia Brittannicca Vol I).

The arab geographer Yakut records that in his time the people of Languja, the swahili name for zanzibar had taken refugee from their enemies on Tumbatu, the inhabitants of which were Moslems (Khalifse Ebn Harib sultan in 911). In 1503 Zanzibar was attacked by Portuguese. In 1890 what was left of the settlements was proclaimed a British protectorate.


Benguela = banto-ngolu = Angola (southeast Africa).

Before the 15th c. was concluded, Portuguese mariners and armies drived moslems out and Portuguese converted dwellers to christianity. p 330. They converted the Arabized east-coast settlements between Sofala and cape Guardafui.

By 1510 all these Moslem settlements had been seized by Portugal , Mozambique being chosen as the chief city of its east African posessions.
In the lower and middle zambezi valley Portuguese found semicivilized tribes who had been for many years in contact with the coast Arabs.

Sterenuous efforts were made to obtain possession of the country (modern Rhodesia) or kingdom of Mouomotapa, where gold had been worked by the natives, and whence the arabs , whom the Portuguese dispossessed were still obtaining supplies in the 16th century.
But Portugal's hold on the regions weakened during tghe 17th c. and ceazed in the 18th c. , it's possessions annexed by Spain then Dutch. Then ceded to the Dutch.
Occupation at the Cape of good hope were continously occupied by British troops .


Enc. Britannica p.935